The
name Rembetika (also known
as Rembetiko, Rebetika, and Rebetiko) is used to describe the
musical
styles of mainland Greece and the music of the "Cafe-Aman" ( a term
used by immigrant Greeks who gathered at these cafes to drink illegally
and smoke hashish) that emerged during the late 19th and early 20th
century. These two styles of Rembetika developed from several
historical events: the displacement of Christians from Asia Minor, the
Metaxas dictatorship in Greece, and World War II. It was during
this time of chaos, that many refugees from Asia Minor arrived in
Greece bringing with them a distinctive style of music that was heavily
influenced by Eastern Traditions. Greek refugees displaced mainly from
the city of Smyrna (located in Turkey, off the Aegean cost) flooded
into the Greek port towns of Piraeus and Thessalonica in hopes for a
better life. Unfortunately, they were met with severe hatred from the
native Greeks because of their mixed blood. Because of this social ostracism, the
immigrants were regulated to horrid living conditions, and had to steal
and commit crimes in order to survive. This struggle between the
native Greeks and the immigrants from abroad, helped to encourage the
formation of a social class who called the selves Mangas. Mangas, which means "dude" or
"thug", were men who were involved with drug trafficking,
prostitution, crime, and above all, Rembetika Music. The
Rembetika of the early 20th Century quickly became the music for
the urban underworld, Outcasts, hash addicts, and immigrants struggling
to live under the prejiudicism of the native Greek culture.
Rembetika
were
mostly songs about drug use, smuggling, gambling, hard life, prison,
repression, and persecution. Often, the lyrics of
the songs told stories of personal incidents such as crime, murder, and
failed relationships. Rembetika was also initially a man's form of
music. Men came together to express their feelings of isolation
from the mainstream society through extemporaneous music, singing, and
dancing. The curative qualities of these actions played an important
role with the ambiance associated with the smoking of the narghile
(hookah, shisha, water pipe). To escape the constraints of society
(both mentally and physically), the Mangas
often frequented a teke (hash dens), a secluded beach, or secret
caves used as hide outs from the law. In their seclusion, the
Rembetes (a term also used to describe a member of the Rembetika
culture) were free to smoke their hashish, and forget the problems of
the everyday life. Drugs also thrived heavily in the prisons of
Greece,
which added to the growth of organized crime syndicates ran by the Mangas. Because of these strong
ties to the criminal underworld, the music of the early Rembetika were
almost entirely non-commercial, and based on oral tradition. In
fact, many of the songs sung by the Rembetes contained messages that
revealed secret places to buy drugs, or places to hide from the
law. Although early Rembetika focused mainly on the culture of
the Mangas, it would
eventually be the voice for thousands of displaced victims effected by
one single event: the 1923 population exchange between Greece and
Turkey. The Greeks call this tragic event the Catastrophe, or better known as
ethnic cleansing. It is because of this event, that the musical
styles of Rembetika and the Cafe-Aman would begin to intermix with each
other in the smoke dens and clubs of Piraeus. The influence of
the Asian Minor Refugees, along with their musical traditions,
instruments, and eastern vocal and compositional styles, spurned a
hybrid style that would eventually lead to the popularization of
Rembetika across the world.
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The goals and objectives of this annotated
bibliography are to provide resources related to the topic of
Rembetika. Some of the resources however, do not deal directly
with Rembetika, but offer a catalyst to other useful sources.
Therefore, with this information, anyone who is interested in exploring
the complex history of Rembetika can ascertain more about this subject
by reading through the citations compiled below. In addition, by
reading through these resources, you will find a wide selection of
citations ranging form videos, sound recordings, to newspaper articles
that deal with some aspect of this genre.
This bibliography however, is not exhaustive.
There is still an abundance of information that I probably was not able
to find, do to the difficulties in accessing libraries in other
countries such as Greece. Often, these resources do not lend
themselves to academic writing, but probably contain an insurmountable
abundance of information. In addition, some books and articles
were no longer in publication, and it became rather time consuming
trying to find these resources. Therefore, I implore anyone who
reads this bibliography to contact me if they have any other relevant
information on Rembetika that is useful, and would like to see it added
to this list.
Enjoy!
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DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS
|
Barker, Andrew. Greek Musical
Writings. 2 vols. Cambridge, England; New York: Cambridge
University Press,
1984-89.
Although this book primarily deals with the
writings of non contemporary Greek music, it could be useful for
someone who would like to know more about the history of music in
Greece, and how it could have possibly influenced the style of
Rembetika in the late 19th century. In addition, this book
contains valuable material that could serve as a reference guide to
find other related topics on Greek music.
Sadie, Stanley. "Rembetika." The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan;
Washington, D.C.; Grove's Dictionaries of Music,
1980.
The New Grove Article on Rembetika, written by Gail
Holst-warcraft, contains a brief, yet concise history of the rembetiko
culture. Included in the article, is an example of three
different dance rhythms: the zeibekiko, a solo male dance (2+2+2+3);
the hasapiko, or 'butcher's dance, in 2/4 or 4/4; and the tsifteteli,
or 'belly dance, in 2/4 or 4/4. I found this information rather
helpful for those who are not acquainted with he Greek folk
dancing. In addition, the article has a useful discography and
bibliography, which I used as part of my resource tools.
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BIOGRAPHIES AND
AUTOBIOGRAPHIES
|
Chatzidoules,
Kostas. "Perpiniades, Genitsares, Matheses, Lelakes." Rempetike historia, Athens, Greece:
Nepheli, 1994.
This book deals with the performers of both
traditional and neo-traditional Rembetika music. In addition, the
autobiographies of these four Rembetika musicians contain information
about their personal struggles of being musicians during the expulsion
of the Greeks from Turkey. The language of the book is in Greek,
and the book is in facsimile or reprint.
Eskenazi, Roza. Auta poun thimamai. Athens,
Greece: Odysseas Hatzopoulos & Co., 1982.
This autobiography is a compilation of several
interviews done by Roza in 1972, and later published in 1982.
Roza Eskenazi was one of the greatest Greek divas of early 20th
century. Sarah Skinazi (Roza's birth name) was born in 1910 to a
Jewish family living in Constantinople. Between the years of 1917
and 1920, Roza and her family moved to Greece and lived in the city of
Thessaloniki. Roza was never formally educated, but she states in
her biography that she learned to speak Greek quickly, and that a kind
lady who lived near her home was her primary instructor. Because
of economic hardships, Roza and her mother moved to a near by city, and
her father stayed in Thessaloniki to work. Several years later,
Roza and her family moved back to Thessaloniki, and lived in a house
occupied by ladies who danced and worked at a theater called the "Grand
Hotel". Roza, fascinated by the beauty and charisma of the
theater, would often imitate the older dancers by mimicking them in a
mirror at her home. Eventually, Roza became a dancer at the
hotel. This embarrassed Roza's family and she was beat on several
different occasions for her actions. However, this did not stop
Roza from pursuing her career. She states that soon after these
incidents, she left her family and went on to become one of the most
famous and highest paid Rembetika artist of her time. This
autobiography contains an insurmountable abundance of anecdotes that
are indispensable for further research.
Hatzidoulis, Kostas; Tsitsanis
Vasilis. Vasilis Tsitsanis: I
zoi mou, to ergo mou. [Vasilis Tsitsanis: My life, my
work.] Greece; Athinai: Nefeli, 1979.
Vasilis Tsitsanis was one of the most important
composers of Rembetika. During the late 1940s and 1950s,
Tsitsanis brought forth a new style of Greek music that fused Western
European ideas with a strong Rembetika influence. The innovation
prompted many of Tsistanis's contemporaries to adopt his new style, and
eventually it led to the popularization and revival of Rembetika in the
1970s. In this autobiography, Tsitsanis includes personal
opinions about the lyrics of his songs, his family, and a brief
discussion of his first compositions.
Metsakes, Giorgos. Oikonomou, Nikos (Autobiography)
Athens, Greece: Ekdoseis tou Ekostou Protou, 1995.
Giorgos Metsakes autobiography on singer, composer,
and bouzouki player Nikos Oikonomou offers useful information about his
life. Metsakes also includes an analysis of several of his songs with
text in both Greek and English.. This book can serve as a catalyst for
finding more information on related topics pertaining to Nikos
Oikonomou.
Vamvarakis, Markos. Autobiogrphia. Ed.
Ageliki-Bellou-Keil. Athens, Greece: Ekdoseis Papazisi, 1978.
Markos Vamarakis (1932-1942) is recognized as one of
the original performers of classical styled Rembetika. In his
autobiography, Markos talks about growing up in Piraeus as a young
boy, and his encounter with the Rembetiko culture. These
encounters inspired Markos to learn how to play the Bouzouki and
eventually land himself a record deal. Other important aspects of
his autobiography details the harsh stereotypes that he faced as a
bouzouki player and the public image one carried for being a performer
of Rembetika. This well written autobiography by Vamvarakis is a must
read for those who want explicit facts on the life of a true Rembetika
artist.
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Cooper, Mike. "Greeks Abroad." Folk Roots. 162 (1996): 27+
This article profiles Australia's Rembetika
Company, a Greek ensemble that specializes in performing traditional
Greek music and dance. The article includes an interview with
band
member Hector Cosmas and his stories of how Greek music came to
Australia, and other related topics. This article is useful for
ascertaining information about the Greek Diaspora and the
cultural struggles of maintaining ones self identity in another
country.
Grosse, Lies; Grosse,Rene. "The
Rebetika: Musicof Hades?" Volsdans
6.4 (1987): 14-20.
This article deals with the drug induced culture of
the Greek underworld, and their struggles with the law during an era of
chaos and political unrest. In the early years of Rembetika, singers
often sang about the burning of Symrna (also known as the catastrophe).
The lyrics were mostly about death and destruction, and the music that
accompanied it was very slow and mournful. Other songs contained
references to drugs, prostitution, and the recanting of the exodus from
the Asia Minor. This article provides an interesting perspective on the
hardships of early Rembetika performers, and the social ostracism in
which they lived in.
Holst-Warhaft, Gail. "Song, self identity, and the Neohellenic." Journal of Modern Greek Studies
Vol. 15, Issue 2
(Oct. 1997): 232-238.
Holst-Warhaft discusses the revival of Greek
music in the early 1990's and the importance of song as a means for
defining ideals about politics, self identity, and the concern of
foreign influence in Greece. This article also mentions how composers,
despite the Rembetika revival, introduced jazz and rock elements to
their compositions during the 1970's and 1980's to appeal to the
younger generation. Gail Holst Warhaft is an award winning author who
published in many journals, newspapers, and magazines that include
topic from Rembetika to ancient Greek Literature. This article by
host-warhaft contains an abundance of material that should be
thoroughly from beginning to end.
Jouste, Marko. "The Guitar Styles of Rebetika and Musical Fusion." Etnomusikologia vuosikirja (1994):
66-68.
This article deals with the use of the guitar
in Rembetika, and the harmonies created by composers of this genre from
1920-1970. Guitar playing in Rembetika often mimicked the
Lauta, which is a cross between a
western guitar and a Middle Eastern
Oud.
Many of the harmonies played by the guitar, are structured from
melodies of the Makam-system (modal system) of turkey and Egypt. This
information is imperative when considering the theoretical aspects of
composition of Rembetika. Additionally, their are several example of
Greek modality included in this article that demonstrates the
complexity associated with modal systems.
Kotapish, Paul. "Ancient tones: the bouzouki's long journey from
Rembetika to Rock and Roll and beyond."
Acoustic Guitar 10 (2000):54-65.
This article discusses the roots of
the bouzouki's heritage from ancient times to the advent of
Rembetika. The bouzouki in rembetika often compared with American
blues because of the high amount of improvisation. A typical
early Rembetika ensemble might have included a singer, two or more
bouzoukis playing melody and simple chords, and a tiny version of the
bouzouki called the baglama (looks some what like a mandolin) which
provided a staccato rhythm accompaniment. Among the most
influential of early players were Markos Vamvakaris and Ioannis
Papaioannou. Eventually, rembetika's reputation for being for
"mangas" only subsided over time and the bouzouki entered the
mainstream partly due to a fine player and prolific composer named
Vassilis Tsitsanis. Tsitsanis is credited for fusing the old
dance rhythms with more elaborate chord progressions with a westernized
harmonic sensibility. In addition, his lyrics had a more
conventional appeal than the harsh tales of the earlier artists Because
of this, Tsitsanis became the first national star of the bouzouki and
made the instrument socially acceptable. .
Magrini, Tullia. "Repertories and identities of a musician from Crete."
Ethnomusicology Online [United
States]:
Vol. 3 (1997)
Tullia Magrini is an Associate Professor of
Anthropology at the University of Bologna, Italy. Since 1974, she has
been highly active in the field of ethnomusicology, with her work
mainly conducted in Greece and Italy. In this article, Magrini
discusses the Cretan dances, the tabachniotika (an urban Cretan dance,
which originated in the clubs where hashish was smoked), the Rembetika,
and the music of Greek American communities. Her article also focuses
on the life of Kostas Papadakis, a professional violin player from
Crete who performed and lived in both Athens and the United States.
Papadakis was one of the leading figures early Rembetika who brought
the style to the U.S. His comments on being a Rebetis ( a member
of the Rembetika culture), gives valuable information into the Greek
underworld and the conditions of being a social outcast. This article
also stresses the role of identification and reinvention of traditions
in Diasporic communities. Magrini's article also has several
commentaries by Philip Bohlan, Paul Gilroy, and James Clifford on the
subject of musical change associated with specific needs within a
diasporic culture.
Pennanen, Risto Pekka. "The Modes in the literature of the restored
Rebetika." Etnomusikologian
vuosikirja
(1997): 87-102.
In this article, Pennanen details several
derivatives of the Ottoman makam. (Usually called dromos by modern
bouzouki musicians) Greek dromos, which means "roads", are essentially
derivatives of the Western scales. Greek music is heavily laden with
concepts that are related to the Turkish Makams. The dromos were used
for both composition and improvisation by the early Rembetika
musicians. However, urban Rembetika underwent
interesting changes during the period from the 1930s to the 1950s.
After WW II, musicians largely
abandoned the Turkish compositional systems and started to compose
increasingly in Western major and minor. The process of adapting
Western musical
influences in Greece helped to modernize Rembetika, which eventually
led to it's popularization throughout Asia Minor. This change in Greek
popular music is analyzed through musical examples, and cloud be useful
for comparing Turkish Makams with the newly adapted ideas from the West.
Spires, Will. "The bouzoki: Its
evolution and modern transformation." Frets:
The Magazine of Acoustic String
Instruments 8.3 (1985): 824-29.
Will Spires gives a brief summary on the
development of the bouzoki from ancient to modern times. Also included
in this article are commentaries on the importance of the bouzoki
within Rembetika music, and the revival of the bouzoki in both
traditional and neohellinc composition.
Tsounis, Demeter. "Kefi and Meraki in
Rebetika Music of Adelaide:
Cultural Constructions of Passion and
Expression and their Link with the Homeland." Yearbook for Traditional Music 27
(1995): 90-103.
Meraki, is
a mood of intense passion that is derived from the Turkish culture of
music, dance and hashish.
Meraki
is also associated with themes that include comradeship, release
from pain and trouble via the narghile (hookah pipe), and familiarity
with and indifference to death. Early Rembetika performers attributed
this form of high passion to several of their most popular dances: the
tsifteteli, the
hasapikos, the
zeibeekikos, and the
hasaposervikos.
Kefi, is a feeling of high spirits
which is expressed through the skillful manipulation of dance. In this
article, Tsounis compares the experience of both
Kefi and
Meraki in the Greek Diaspora from
around the world. Dance technique, learning specific dances, and
finding places to dance are also mentioned in this comprehensive look
at Greek cultures from abroad..
Wagner, Christoph. "Hinter den
Hashishwolken: Griecherisher Rembetika,
der Blues der Ausgeschmierten und
Bohemiens." [Behind the clouds of hash: Greek
Rembetika, The Blues of Shady Characters and Bohemians.]
Neue Zeitschriff
Fur Musik n2 (2002): 62-3.
In this article, Wagner details the lives of
the
Rebetes and their
association with the criminal underworld. He also gives background
information on the way they dressed, their weapons and forms of
street fighting, sexual orientations, and most importantly, the
sub-culture that was formed around the smoking of hashish. These
commentaries by Wagner emphasize the strong influence that the bohemian
culture had on music of the Rembetika.
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Alexiou, Sotos. Vasillis Tsitsanis.
Athens, Greece: Kastaniotis, 1998.
Alexiou's book reflects on the life and works of the this
late great Rembetika composer and bouzoki player. Tsitsanis started his
recording career in 1935 at the age of 20. In 1938, Tsitsanis recorded
a song titled
Arhontissa.
This amazed the Greeks and immediately becomes a huge success for
a Rembetika composer. Occupation, an amazing material which brings him
to timeliness the following years and in that way he distinguishes as
the greatest composer in all levels. Vassilis Tsitsanis, without doubt,
is the composer of great range of songs. His work consists of 360 songs
that places him as one of the finest Greek composers
Anoyankis, Fivos. Greek Popular
Musical Instruments. 2nd ed. Athens, Greece: Melissa Publishing
House, 1991.
Greek Popular
Music offers
an
anthology of musical material from ancient to modern Greece. The author
of the book, Fivos Anoyankis, is a well respected musicologist,
musician, and critic whose contributions have greatly influenced the
study of Greek Music. His specialty's range from studies on
traditional Greek instruments, to modern "art" musical operation.
Anoyankis was also one of the first to document the artistic values of
the Rembetiko traditions. In this book, Anoyankis gives detailed
schematics on the design of Greek instruments, performance
technique, and musical examples to demonstrate the different genres of
music found in Greece.
Aulin, Suzane; Vejleskoiv, Peter. Hashish
Rebetika: Anthology, analysis, and commentary. Kobenhaven: U. of
Kobenhaven, 1991.
This book is an introduction to several different
commentaries on subjects relevant to the study of Rembetika. Most of
the analysis is on the sub cultural, songs, folk music, and drug
induced members of the Rembetika culture. With this analysis, the
authors make inferences about the way these people lived, and what
types of social conditions the were under. This book could serve a as
reference guide to the many idiosyncrasies within the Rembetika culture
from the years 1925 to1936.
Butterworth, Katherine.
Schneider, Sar. Rebetika: Songs from the Greek
Underworld. Athens, Greece: Komboloi,
1975.
This book contains a series of articles by
Petropoulos, Dragoumi, and Petrides. Included with these articles are
transcriptions of songs in both English and Greek
. Of these four articles, the information
provided by Petropoulos is the most authoritative in terms of relative
content. His works have been published in over 80 books and he has
written at least 1,000 articles. Twenty seven of his books can be found
in Collected Works by Nefeli
Publishers, Athens. One of Petropoulos's most important contributions
to the study of Rebetika is his 1968 publication of Rebetika Songs. This book dealt
primarily with the taboo subculture of Rebetiko music, which led to Petropoulos's first
prison sentence under the Fascist Greek junta of the 1960's. This book
by Butterworth is an excellent resource for gathering information on
the writers of Rebetika, and the struggles they met during a time of
censorship under the dictatorship of the Greek junta.
Chatzidoules, Kostas. O Tsistanis
mils gia te zou tou. [Tsitsanis
speaks about his life.] Athens , Greece: Nepheli,
1995.
Kostas Chatzidoules book on the life of
Vassilis Tsitanis is an indispensable resource containing anecdotes by
Tsitsanis's himself. Within this book, Tsistanis speaks about his
family, his first encounters with Rembetika music, and the influences
that inspired him to be a leader in the art of Rembetika. Also included
in this book is descriptive discography of his works along with a
comprehensive analysis of the lyrics of his songs.
Crosfield, Domini. Dances of Greece.
2nd ed. New York: Chanticleer Press, 1950.
In this book, Crosfield describes the
different customs that are involved with Greek dance. Many styles of
dancing in Greece are attributed to certain religious events such as
Easter and the birth of the Virgin Mary. Also informative is the fact
that each province in Greece has it's own traditions that have been
handed down from generation to generation., making each and every
aspect of their dance uniquely their own. Crossfield also outlines the
importance of circular dancing in Greece, and its historical
value from ancient to modern Greece. Other interesting features of this
book are the pictures of the different costumes worn by both men
and women, musical examples, and charts showing the steps to certain
Greek dances.
Emery, Ed; Petropoulos, Elias. Songs
of the Greek Underworld: The Rebetika Tradition. London: Saqi,
2000.
This book by both Emery and Petropoulos,
gives details on the everyday life of the rebetes – who they were,
where they came from, how they dressed, their weapons and styles of
fighting, their sexual preferences, their culture of hashish and of
prison life, all of which was reflected in their songs. The text of
this book is accompanied by breakdowns of the rhythms and metric
patterns of the different music and their associated dances. It also
includes the lyrics and the musical notes of songs from the rebetika
tradition. Also included are commentaries by Elias Petropoulos. Elias
Petropoulos is Known as a well respected poet, collector of songs, and
a documentor of the mannerisms associated with of the Greeks underworld
. His works include
The Good
Thief's Handbook,
Holy
Hashish: 18 Texts on the Underworld,
The History of the Condom and Cemeteries
of Greece. This book contains an abundance of resources that
are imperative for those who want an in-depth analysis of the Rebetika
sub-culture.
Georgiades, Thrasybulos. Greek
music, verse, and dance. Trans. Erwin Benedikt & Louis
Martinez. New York: Da
Capo Press, 1973.
Greek Music,
verse, and dance, offers little information on the subject of
Rembetika. However, there is some important resource on the
developments of singing styles in Greece. Other topics discussed in
this book are the changes in the Greek language, and the effect this
has had on the treatment of verses in vocal music. Additionally, there
are very few musical. examples and the book is difficult to read.
Holst, Gail. Road to Rembetika:
Music from a Greek Sub-Culture; Songs of love, sorrow and Hashish.
Athens:
Anglo-Hellenic Publishing, 1975.
In this book, Holst gives historical,
Bibliographical, and disco graphical information on Rembetika. Also
included are translations of 85 songs together with phonetic
transcriptions of the original Greek Text. Her information on the
lineage of players, musical examples, and pictures are also helpful for
demonstrating the aesthetics of the Greek Culture. Holst's tales of
roaming Greece while writing this book, was also very informative and
entertaining. In fact, this book later became a video documentary and
won several awards.
Housepian, Marjoie. The Symrna Affair.
New York: Harcourt Brace, 1971.
Dr. Marjorie Housepian Dobkin, is leading
authority on the destruction of Smyrna and of the author of S
myrna 1922: The Destruction of a City. (Faber
& Faber, London, 1972, previously published in 1971 by Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, New York, as T
he
Smyrna Affair) In her book, she provides the first in-depth
investigation on a the horrific events of September 1922 and the
subsequent cover-up by Turkey an the Western Allies.
Smyrna 1922, was also on the
New York Times list of top "100 Notable Books" of 1971. And in 1972, it
was considered the "Book of the Year" by the Sunday Times of London. In
this book, Dr. Housepian also describes the horrific killing and raping
of Greeks and Armenians, and the looting and pillaging of their homes
and shops by the Turkish Military. She mentions that over 100,000 Greek
and Armenian civilians were killed by the Turks during the invasion.
What is really interesting are the accounts of the Allied forces and
their reluctance to help the Greeks. This has led to many controversial
debates which has spurned criticism from around the world.
"In the harbor of Smyrna stood a flotilla of twenty one warships:
French cruisers and destroyers, British destroyers and a battleship, an
Italian battleship and three American destroyers. All were on orders
from their respective foreign offices and military commanders to
refrain from giving aid and comfort to the Greeks and Armenians who
were considered enemies of the Turks. The ships were on hand to protect
their own interests only." This quote by Dr. Housepain reflects the
irony of this event, and the resentment felt by the Greeks towards the
Allied Forces for not helping them. This, ultimately led to the
expulsion of the Greeks from Symran, and constituted the beginnings of
the Greek Culture of Rembetika.
Kotarides, Nikos. Rebetes and
Rebetika Songs. Athens, Greece: Plethron, 1996.
"Presents
eight texts by postgraduate students in a Seminar called The
civilization of popular arts. The
texts discusses the rebetes--men of special sociological distinction
and offer guidelines for their behavior." [Extract
from
Biboline-RILM Abstracts of
Music Literature,
1967 Present. http://biblio.nisc.com/
(assessed on January 12, 2004)]
Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler's
Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941-1944.
Princeton:
Yale University
Press, 1995.
This book by Mark Mazower offers a richly
illustrated account of wartime Greece. Mazower explores the impact of
the Nazi Occupation upon the lives and values of ordinary Greek
citizens. He also describes the experience of occupation of Greece, and
details the lives of resistance fighters, black marketers, and the
treatment of Greeks by the Gestapo officers. This book could be useful
to determine if the occupation had any impact on the Rembetika
culture and if they were also ostracized by the Germans
Pagiatis, Haralambos. Oi Laikoi
Dromoi. Athens, Greece: Mousikes Ekdoseies Fagotto, 1987.
Pagiatis analyzes the scales used in both Greek
traditional and popular songs. In this book, he wonderfully
demonstrates the scales with their fingering for three basic
instruments: the guitar, the bouzouki and keyboards. He also includes
the basic and secondary chords of the scales, typical chord
progressions, all of which are incorporated within exercises on
authentic folk rhythms. Additionally, Pagiatis includes several
completed pieces to play, which bring out the characteristic and
nuances of these scales. This book is written in both English and
Greek, and has both musical notation and tablature.
Oi Laikoi Dromoi, is an essential
book for those who want to the scales used in Rembetika composition.
Petropoulos, Elia. Rebetika
Tragoudia. Athens, Greece: Kedros, 1991.
Elias Petropoulos is regarded as one of the
most prolific authors on the subject of Rembetika. In this book, he
reflects on the difficulties he had with publishing companies because
of the "taboo" nature of Rembetika. He also mentions, that when he
finally published
Rebetika Tragoudia,
it cost him five months in jail and his divorce from his wife.
According to Petropoulos, it was inadmissible to speak of Rebetes and
Rebetika twenty years ago. Petropoulos’ book however, went on to
become highly successful and was the book that established the term
“rebetika." This book includes the words and music of 21
Rembetika songs, is full of rich illustrations. He also includes
important historical facts on the lives of the Rebetes, and
makes comparisons between Byzantine chant and several Rembetika tunes.
Spottswood,
Richard K. Ethnic Music on
Record: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United
States, 1893-1942. 7 vols. Urbana, Illinois: U. of
Illinois Press, 1990.
Richard K.Spottswood is a self described "music
lover" who holds
degrees from the University of Maryland (BA, 1960) and Catholic
University
(MS, Library Science, 1962). He is also one of the founding members of
the Association for Recorded Sound Collections (ARSC). This non-profit
organization is dedicated to the research, study, publication, and
information exchange surrounding all aspects of recordings and recorded
sound. Mr. Spottswood is the author of
Ethnic
Music on Records (7 vols., 1990),. which is a monumental book
for finding resources on all aspects of sound recording produced in the
U.S. from 1893-1942. This book could be useful for finding early
recordings of Rembetika done in the U.S.
Torp, Lisbet. "Salonios, the best
violin in the Balkans." Dimitrios Semsis alias Salonikios, An
outstanding
musician, composer,
and recording director. Kobenhaven: U. of Kobenhaven, 1993.
Dimitrios Semsis was a great musician
and one of the main proponents of the recording industry in Greece from
the mid-1920's until his death in 1950. During the 1930's, Semsis
established the first Greek State Radio and was responsible for airing
folk music broadcasts. Semsis grew up in a musical family and had a
father and grandfather who were both makers and players of the violin.
By the age of ten, Semsis was already known for his musical talents
throughout Greece. During his teenage years, Semsis played throughout
Asia Minor, and would often play for the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Semsis was also known for his ability to learn other styles of music,
and incorporate them into his performances in other countries. The
recordings of Semsis, demonstrate his exceptional playing which also
showcases his elaborate soloing over various Greek dances. This book
also contains an extensive recording catalogue based on
handwritten comments by Semsis which provides useful insights on
Rembetika discography.
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Einersson, Mats. Greek Rebetiko: A
summary account of the Rebetiko culture and a stylistic stranglehold on
the
musicians. 60-point thesis: Stockholm U.,
Musikvetenskapliga Institution, 1987.
Kalamida, Georgia Ellas. Music,
politics, and identity in Greece and the Greek American Diaspora.
Ph.D. diss.,
Rutgers State U. of New Jersey, New Brunswick, 2003.
This dissertation by Kalamide deals with the
struggle for Greek sovereignty from the Ottoman Empire and the use of
singing as a form of spiritual moral for those who fought to free
Greece from tyranny. In fact, during the early years of the 19th
Century, royalist and republican forces that fought for control of
Greece sang songs in the style of rembetika. They sang these
songs to remind themselves of the massacre experienced by thousands of
Greek refugees fleeing from Asia Minor. These songs inspired
resistance fighters and fostered a sense of identity among those who
opposed the Turks. Today, songs still evoke powerful emotions
concerning the occupied island state of Cypress. Much of the
power of music for Greeks has always been in the words. This is
an important concept to understand to really comprehend the music of
the early Rebetiko culture and the meaning behind their lyrics.
Gauntlett, Stathis. Rembetika
Carmina
Graciae Recentoris. diss. University of Oxford, 1978. Limni,
Evia, Greece:
Dennis Harvey Publisher, 1985.
In this dissertation, Stathis Gauntlett
explores the possible Turkish/Arabic derivatives for the word
Rembetika. Gauntlett states that the word " harabat" in Ottoman Turkish
means ruins and taverns. He also defines the word "harabati" as someone
who is a vagabond or a drunkard/drug addict. He believes that these
words are derived from the Arabic word "ribaat", and possibly are where
the derivative of the word "rebetis" comes from. Guantlett also
suggests that Rembetika could have been influenced by Sufism and the
trance like dances of the Dervish. Often, Rebetes ( those who practiced
Rembetika) referred to themselves as "dervishes" and their hashish
clubs as "tekke." The word Rebetes can also mean "gutter" in
Turkish, "rebel" in Serb, "lord" in Arabic and Persian, "rab" from the
Hebrew word for rabbi, and the Greek word "remvastiko"
which means meditation. This dissertation by Guantlett also has a good
selection ot translated songs, which are indispensable resources for an
in depth analysis of the words associated with this genre.
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Greek
Oriental
Rebetica-Songs & Dances in Asia Minor
[Semsis/Papagika/Papasidheris; Payumdzis/Adadzi] CD,
Folk 7005 (16.7)
Ireland.
This recording provides an excellent
anthology of early Rembetika and proto-Rembetiak music put together by
Martin Schwartz, a UC-Berkeley professor who is a knowledgeable
enthusiast of the music. Some of the tracks go back to recordings from
1911. Particularly good are the selections by Rita Adadzi, Andonis
Dalgas, and Rosa Eskanzi, all of whom are important artists of the
Rembetika tradition. This recording also contains linear notes
written in English with Greek and English translations of the songs.
All together, this CD has 21 digitally remastered tracks, and may serve
as a good introduction on Rembetika.
Rembetika-Songs of the Greek
Underworld 1925-1947. Trikont CD, US-0293.
This two CD double package contains an excellent
amount of resources on Rembetika music from the years 1925-1947.
Included within the package, are illustrations of the port of Salonika
during the "Catastrophe", two separate booklets with a substantial
amount of annotations, and a great selection of musical and lyrical
examples. This compilation of various composers is a must have for the
true Rembetika enthusiasts. Some of the tracks have been digitally
remastered, and others are the original recordings Although the
originals can sound rather ruff in terms of quality, they truly capture
the morbid sounds of the Greek Underworld.
Mourmourika-Songs of the Greek Underworld. Rounder CD, US-1120.
The title of this CD
Mourmourika, was one of the many
different names used by the Greek Underworld to denote their styles of
music.
Ta Mourmourika in
Greek literally mans to "complain" or "kick up dust." However, if you
used this word out on the mean streets of Athens, it would imply that
you were a "Mangas" or "tough guy." Mourmourika compositions usually
were constructed from traditional melodies with an improvised
accompaniment. In the compilation CD, there are 21 tracks that have
been remastered from original 78 rpm recordings to digital sound. Like
most songs of the Rembetika tradition, the lyrics are morbid. They sing
about betrayal, violence, blood lust, stealing, and the difficulties
with drug addiction. This CD is a good resources for comparing
different styles of Rembetika musical heritage's.
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Barrett, Matt. "Rembetika Music." Rembetika
and Greek Popular Music.
http://www.greecetravel.com/music/rembetika/
(accessed December 1, 2003)
Rembetika
and Greek Popular Music by Matt Barrett offers a mixture of
resources that are useful for searching topics related to Rembetika
Music. From his web pages, you can accesses links that contain
examples of vintage Rembetika and accesses other sites dedicated to the
preservation of Greek Folk Music. Also noteworthy are his articles on
the history, players, and
Emery, Ed. Rembetika-A Brief History.
http://www.geocities.com/hydragahering/emery1.html
(accessed December
1, 2003)
The purpose of this web site is to introduce
background and historical information on Rembetika music. The subjects
that are discussed are on the topics of Greece and Greeks, the meaning
and derivation or Rembetika, the social setting of Rembetika, Markos
Vamvarakis and the Mangas, transcriptions of songs, the social
acceptability of Rembetika, Smyrna, performers and composers of
Rembetika, recordings, Elias Petropoulos, and several passages of notes
by the author. This article has been reprinted from Ed Emery's book
titled:
Rebetika:
Songs of the Greek Underworld.
Panagiotakopoulos, George. The
Rebetika. http://www.rembetiko.gr/intro.htm
(accessed December 1, 2003)
This web site offers details about the
history and origins of Rembetika. Included are essays and articles
written by leading experts on the Rembetiko genre, discussion forums on
folk music, and a number of other related resource tools that are
linked via the web pages. The essays cover such topics as: the origins
of Rembetiko, influence and style, the instruments, dances and modes,
verses, and a conclusion that summarizes the main points of each essay.
Also, from the main home page you can access the
Rembetiko Club. These
pages offer more resources on Rembetika including timelines, music,
memories from the past, and a membership for those who want
current updates on all aspects of the Rembetika culture.
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NEWS PAPER ARTICLES AND
EESAYS
|
Aastasi, Pual. "Sotiria Bellou, 75, of
Athens, leading singer of the Greek blues." The New York Times 146.50
(1997): 31.
An obituary for Sotiria Bellou by New York Times
columnist Paul Anastasi. Bellou was considered one of the leading
performers of traditional Rembetika songs. In this article by Anastasi,
he discusses Bellou's turbulent life which included jail sentences,
involvement with Communist groups, and her relationships with the
Nazis and the Greek Government forces during WW II. Bellou was a self
taught musician who often performed on the streets. She was fortunate
to have made the aquientence of composer, singer Vaslilis
Tsitsanis, who helped Bellou's career by recording her at his
studio. Over the next 40 years, Bellou would produce some of the best
selling records in Greece. Like most songs of the Rembetika, her lyrics
were manifestations of her poverty, and she was hailed as the
voice for underprivileged members of the Greek underworld. When Bellou
died, thousands came to mourn her.
Holst-Warhaft, Gail. Rembetika: The
Double Descended Deep Songs of Greece. New York, NY: Berg,
1998. 111-27.
This essay is from a collection titled:
The
passion of music and dance : body, gender, and sexuality / edited by
William Washabaugh. In
this essay, Holst-Warhaft describes the attitude Greeks have towards
changes in their popular music, culture, and the position they maintain
as a country who is split between Asia Minor and Europe.
Host-Warhaft goes on to say that the Greek culture has not
declined since its entry into the European community, but rather it has
resurrected historical loyalties based upon their religious traditions.
The importance of this article is to show how the Greek culture have
been able to maintain their self identity through out the past 100
years, and not fall victims to outside influences. This idea of keeping
their heritage and culture alive, is one of the main driving reasons
why Rembtika enjoyed a revival during the 1970's.
.
Papageorgiou, Fouli T. "Popular music
and the music industry in
Greece." Whose master's voice? The
development
of popular music in thirteen cultures.
[United States]; West port, CT,us: Greenwood, 1997. 67-87.
In this article, Papageorgiou attempts to answer or
explain questions on the study of culture and communication. in the
music industry and music making in 13 different cultures. This article
could be useful for musicologists or for any individual who is
interested on the studies of other cultures, and the way they are
affected by external as well as internal communication systems. This
article could be useful for comparing the ways each culture deals with
the influence of the world media , and the ways in which
these cultures retain their personal traditions and customs.
Shand, Angela. The Tsifte-teli
Sermon: Identity, Theology and Gender on Rebetika. New York, NY:
Berg, 1998.
127-32.
This essay is from a collection titled:
The
passion of music and dance : body, gender, and sexuality / edited by
William Washabaugh. In this essay, Shand describes the Turkish
dance called Tsifte-teli and how is is perceived in the Greek culture.
The Tsifte-teli is a Greek belly dance. This rhythm for dancing the
Tsifte-teli is common all over the middle east and the name Tsifte-teli
is actually Turkish. A typical tsifteteli is not performed by a single
belly dancer, but by an massive amount of dancers populating one large
dance floor. Tsifteteli can be danced by men and women alike, in solo,
couples and group formations. In this essay, Shand describes how many
Greeks feel that this dance is a for a women without personal restraint
for her actions. What she is implying is that women who dance the
Tsifte-teli could be putting themselves in danger because of the sexual
temptations that are brought out by the mannerisms of the dance. This
could possibly led to sexual advancements by men who think that
the dancer is giving off sexual desires for them. Also, because the
dance is associated with Turkish traditions, some Greeks feel that it
is not part of their culture and it should be removed.
Steingress, Gerhard. Social theory
and the comparative history of the Flamenco, Tango, and Rebetika.
Oxford:
Berg, 1998. 151-171.
This essay is from a collection titled:
The
passion of music and dance : body, gender, and sexuality / edited by
William Washabaugh.
"In an age of globalization and rapidly changing
musical landscapes, social scientists from different countries and
disciplines attempt to analyze the contemporary cultural dynamics of
some of the current ethnical musical styles with respect to their
common traits. Their approach is based on the conceptions of hybridty
and hybridization as they are currently discussed in the cultural and
social sciences as well as in musicology itself. Alluding to the
labyrinth as a metaphor of the revelation of complex ramifications, it
is hoped that this approach will provide a new theoretical and
methodological access to the explanation of recent processes of
cultural transformation within the field of popular music." [
Extract from Ethnology &
Anthropology Literature, by Prof. Gerhard Steingress,
University of Seville, Spain.
http://www.lit-verlag.de/kataloge/ethnologie_2003.pdf
(accessed on January 17, 2004)]
Gerhard Stein
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De Montagnie, Philipe. (Producer) Rembetika, the Blues of Greece.VHS.
New York: Brighton Video, 1980.
This movie/documentay is based on the book by Gail
holst-Warhaft titled:
Rembetika, the Blues of Greece.
Directed by
Philippe de Montigny and narrated by Anthony Quin, this film details
traditional Greek forms of music, dance, and also revisits stories from
the past. It features interviews by Sotiria Bellou, the
late Rembetika singer; the Rembetiki Koumpania, a popular traditional
performance group, Greek singer Mariza Koch,
and an important interview with the legendary Greek composer Mikis
Theodorakis. Theodorakis's music is featured in the film "Zorba the Greek," which starred
Anthony Quin. This film is monumental in terms of resources and
information on Rembetika.
Zervoulakos, Yiorgos. (Producer) Rembetiko.
Directed by Costas Ferris,
Music by Stavros Xarchos. 1986.
The director of this film,Costas Ferris, is
regarded as one of the most controversial directors in Greek cinema
today. In his film "Rembetika", Ferris describes the story of a famous
female singer who lived from the years 1917-1965. In 1984, this
film received numerous awards by the European Academy of Film and
Television, and it would go on to become one of the most popular greek
movies of the 1980's. In fact, this film has been voted the most
popular Greek film by average votes, by the
Internet Movie Data Base.
[http://www.imdb.com/ (accessed on January 18, 2004)] Because of its
huge international success, Ferris turned the film into a T.V. mini
series, and actually turned it into a musical tilted "Rembetiko: The
Musical." The music for the film was written by Stavros Xarhakos, a
well known composer of both traditional and modern Greek music. This
film contains a plethora of vital information that is important to the
study of Rembetika.
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